Quick Answer
For most consumer devices made after 2017, a factory reset is sufficient to make data unrecoverable - modern devices use hardware encryption with secure key destruction.
For devices older than 2017, regulated industries (healthcare, financial, legal), or any situation where data leakage would be catastrophic: use DBAN (Darik's Boot and Nuke) for HDDs, manufacturer-specific Secure Erase commands for SSDs, or physical destruction by a certified ITAD provider with notarised certificate.
This guide explains exactly which approach applies to your device and your data.
Why this matters
In 2024, IBM's Cost of a Data Breach Report put the average data-breach cost at $4.88 million. The most common single source of avoidable breaches is end-of-life device disposal without secure data destruction.
Real cases that have triggered fines or prosecutions: - Morgan Stanley - fined $35M by SEC (2022) for unencrypted hard drives sold at auction containing client data - Affinity Health Plan (NY) - $1.2M HIPAA settlement after a leased copier was returned with 344,579 patient records on its hard drive - British Airways - £20M ICO fine (2020), partially involving inadequate data lifecycle management - NHS - £200K ICO penalty (2017) for hard drives sold on eBay containing 8 million patient records
The technical methods to prevent these incidents have existed for over 20 years. Failure to use them is now legally indefensible in most jurisdictions.
The two scenarios
Scenario A: Consumer device, personal data - Examples: family laptop, personal smartphone, household tablet - Risk profile: identity theft, financial accounts compromise, embarrassing private content - Sufficient method: factory reset on any device made after 2017
Scenario B: Regulated data (HIPAA, GDPR, GLBA, SOX, FERPA) - Examples: business laptop with client records, healthcare provider device, attorney's hard drive - Risk profile: regulatory fines, litigation exposure, loss of professional licensure - Required method: certified destruction with notarised certificate of destruction (CoD)
The methods below are organised by both scenario and device type.
Modern smartphone wiping (Android, iPhone)
iPhone (iOS 15 and later)
iOS uses file-based encryption with hardware-protected keys stored in the Secure Enclave. When you erase the device, the encryption keys are deleted - making the data mathematically unrecoverable, even with forensic tools.
Steps:
- Settings → General → Transfer or Reset iPhone → Erase All Content and Settings
- Sign out of iCloud (you'll be prompted)
- Wait for the device to reboot to "Hello" screen
- Confirm: the device should require Apple ID login to set up - this proves Find My iPhone activation lock is still tied to your account (good - until the new owner removes it via your account)
- For devices being recycled (not sold): also remove the device from your Apple ID's device list at appleid.apple.com → Devices
Time: 1-3 minutes for the wipe itself.
Security level: Government-grade for any iPhone with Secure Enclave (iPhone 5s and later, all current models). Even forensic recovery firms cannot extract data after this process completes.
Android (modern devices)
Android 10 and later use file-based encryption by default. Most flagship phones (Samsung Galaxy S20+, Pixel 5+, OnePlus 8+) have hardware-backed key storage similar to iPhone.
Steps:
- Settings → System → Reset options → Erase all data (factory reset)
- Confirm - device may take 5-15 minutes to complete on older models
- For Samsung devices: also remove from your Samsung Account (Settings → Accounts → Samsung Account → Sign out, then visit account.samsung.com to remove device)
- For Google account: remove from myaccount.google.com → Security → Your devices
Important caveat for Android: devices running Android 9 or earlier, or budget phones without hardware-backed encryption, may not provide the same security guarantee. For these devices, after factory reset, fill the storage with junk data (record long videos until full, then factory reset again) to overwrite any recoverable artifacts.
Older smartphones (pre-2017) and feature phones
For Nokia, Blackberry, older Android (pre-Marshmallow), older iPhones (pre-5s):
- Manually delete all photos, contacts, messages
- Sign out of all accounts
- Factory reset
- Physical destruction recommended if any sensitive data ever touched the device - older devices' "wipe" functions are unreliable
For phones being donated or sold rather than recycled: use the dedicated trade-in service (Apple Trade In, MusicMagpie) - they perform additional commercial-grade wiping.
Tablet wiping
Same as smartphones - modern iPad and Android tablets use the same encryption + secure erase methods.
iPad: Settings → General → Transfer or Reset iPad → Erase All Content and Settings.
Android tablets: Settings → System → Reset → Factory data reset.
Removing from accounts is critical for tablets too - particularly Apple iPad (Find My activation lock) and Samsung tablets.
Laptop and desktop wiping
Mac (macOS Big Sur 11.0 and later, Apple Silicon and Intel T2 chips)
Modern Macs use the Secure Enclave for hardware-backed encryption.
For Apple Silicon (M1/M2/M3/M4) and Intel Macs with T2 security chip:
- System Settings → General → Transfer or Reset → Erase All Content and Settings
- Sign out of iCloud
- Wait for reboot to "Hello" screen
- Time: 5-15 minutes
For older Intel Macs without T2 chip (pre-2018 in most cases):
- Sign out of iCloud, iMessage, all accounts
- Boot into Recovery (Cmd+R during boot) → Disk Utility → erase the drive (use APFS format)
- Reinstall macOS
- For sensitive data: use Disk Utility's "Security Options" → "Most Secure" (7-pass random write) or boot from a DBAN USB
Windows 10/11
Windows uses BitLocker drive encryption when enabled. Most modern devices have BitLocker enabled by default; verify before assuming.
Check if BitLocker is enabled: - Settings → Privacy & security → Device encryption (Windows 11) - Control Panel → BitLocker Drive Encryption (Windows 10)
If BitLocker is enabled, the standard reset is secure (encryption key destruction = data destruction).
Steps:
- Settings → System → Recovery → Reset this PC
- Choose "Remove everything"
- Critically: select "Clean drive" not "Just remove my files" - Clean drive performs a single-pass overwrite that takes 1-4 hours but makes data unrecoverable
- Wait for completion (typical: 2-4 hours)
For older Windows machines (Windows 7, Windows 8, no BitLocker): - Use DBAN (see below) - Or remove the drive and physically destroy it
Linux
For Linux machines with full-disk encryption (LUKS) enabled at install: same approach as BitLocker - destroy the encryption key by reformatting and reinstalling.
For Linux without FDE: - Boot from a Linux live USB - Use `shred -vfz -n 3 /dev/sdX` (replace X with the actual device letter, NOT a partition like sda1) - This performs 3 passes of random data overwrite
Hard drive (HDD) wiping
Mechanical hard drives can be wiped reliably with software because the magnetic platters can be overwritten in place.
Free, secure tools - DBAN (Darik's Boot and Nuke) - historically the standard, dban.org. Free for personal use. Defaults to a 3-pass overwrite (DoD 5220.22-M short). - Note: DBAN has been unofficially discontinued since Blancco acquired it in 2014. Still works but not maintained. Last update 2015. - ShredOS - modern open-source alternative, actively maintained (sourceforge.net/projects/shredos) - Linux `shred` - built into every Linux system
Steps with DBAN:
- Download DBAN ISO from dban.org
- Burn to USB (use Rufus on Windows or `dd` on Mac/Linux)
- Boot the target machine from the USB
- Select drives to wipe
- Choose method (DoD 3-pass for typical use; Gutmann 35-pass only for extreme paranoia)
- Wait - 1-8 hours depending on drive size
For business / regulated use: DBAN is no longer considered sufficient evidence of compliance. Use a commercial tool that generates a notarised certificate of destruction (Blancco Drive Eraser, WhiteCanyon WipeDrive, KillDisk Industrial).
SSD wiping (solid-state drives)
SSDs require different methods than HDDs. The wear-levelling firmware that protects SSD lifespan also makes traditional overwriting unreliable - the SSD may write to a different physical block than the one you're trying to overwrite.
Method 1: ATA Secure Erase command
Most SSDs support a manufacturer-implemented Secure Erase command that resets every cell to factory state.
Tools that issue Secure Erase: - hdparm (Linux): `hdparm --user-master u --security-set-pass NULL /dev/sdX` then `hdparm --user-master u --security-erase NULL /dev/sdX` - PartedMagic (commercial Linux distro, $11) - Manufacturer tools: Samsung Magician (Samsung SSDs), Crucial Storage Executive (Crucial), Intel Memory and Storage Tool, WD Dashboard - HDDErase (legacy DOS tool, still works)
Method 2: NVMe Format command
NVMe SSDs (modern M.2 format) support the NVMe Format command which is even more thorough than ATA Secure Erase. - Linux: `nvme format /dev/nvme0n1 -s 1` (sanitise option) - Windows: use the SSD manufacturer's tool
Method 3: Encryption + key destruction
If the SSD has been encrypted from first use (BitLocker on Windows, FileVault on Mac, LUKS on Linux), simply destroying the encryption key (via factory reset) is mathematically equivalent to physical destruction of the data.
This is why always-on full-disk encryption is the correct strategy for any device that may eventually be retired or resold.
What NOT to do for SSDs - Don't use DBAN - was designed for HDDs, doesn't reliably reach all SSD storage cells - Don't use `shred` - same issue - Don't drill holes - a few drilled holes don't guarantee destruction of all NAND chips - Don't smash with a hammer - same issue, plus injury risk
Physical destruction (when wiping isn't enough)
For maximum security or compliance with strict regulations:
Methods and equipment - Shredding - industrial shredders cut drives into 6mm or smaller particles. Per NIST SP 800-88 R1: "purge" or "destroy" level. - Degaussing - strong magnetic field disrupts magnetic alignment on HDDs. Does NOT work on SSDs (they're not magnetic). - Disintegration - reduces drives to particles smaller than 2mm. Highest assurance level. - Incineration - burning at 1,200°C. Used for highly classified material.
When to use - HIPAA: NIST 800-88 guidelines R1 "destroy" level required for ePHI on retiring hardware - DOJ / DOD / Top Secret: physical destruction mandatory regardless of wipe method - Most banks: physical destruction for hard drives that ever held customer financial data
Where to get it done - Iron Mountain - global, certified, expensive but bulletproof documentation - Shred-it - primarily paper shredding but offers electronics - Local certified ITAD providers - see our ITAD services directory - DIY for very small quantities: drill, hammer, plus separate disposal of fragments
For business quantities, NEVER DIY. The cost of a single missed drive can exceed the entire shredding service cost by orders of magnitude.
Special device categories
Networked devices (printers, copiers, NAS, routers)
These often have hidden internal storage that retains documents, scanned files, fax images, and configuration with credentials. - Multifunction printers / copiers: many models cache the last 10-100 documents printed/scanned/faxed. Factory reset doesn't always clear this - manufacturer-specific instructions required (Xerox, HP, Canon, Konica-Minolta all have different procedures) - NAS devices (Synology, QNAP): full-disk wipe via the NAS UI's "Secure Erase" function, OR remove drives and process individually - Routers: factory reset clears WiFi passwords; for ISP-provided routers also remove configuration via the ISP portal - Smart home hubs: factory reset + remove from your Google Home / Amazon Alexa / SmartThings account
Game consoles - PlayStation 5: Settings → System → System Software → Reset Options → Reset Your Console - Xbox Series X/S: Settings → System → Console info → Reset console → Reset and remove everything - Nintendo Switch: System Settings → System → Format Options → Initialize Console (also Initialize Save Data separately)
Always deactivate from your account before disposing - particularly important for PS5 (PSN account) and Xbox (Microsoft account) to enable the new owner to claim it.
Wearables (smartwatches, fitness trackers) - Apple Watch: Settings → General → Reset → Erase All Content and Settings, plus Unpair from iPhone Watch app - Fitbit: Settings → About → Factory Reset, plus remove device from Fitbit account - Garmin: Settings → System → Reset → Delete Data and Reset Settings
Cameras (digital, mirrorless, DSLR) - Settings → Setup → Reset Camera (most brands) - Remove and wipe SD card separately - For working cameras with high resale value: trade in via MPB or KEH rather than recycling
Home appliances with smart features
Modern fridges, washing machines, ovens with WiFi connectivity: - Reset to factory defaults via the device menu - Remove from your manufacturer app (Samsung SmartThings, LG ThinQ, Whirlpool app) - Remove from any voice assistant (Alexa, Google Assistant)
Compliance grades and standards
NIST SP 800-88 Rev. 1 (US standard)
Three sanitisation levels: - Clear: standard factory reset / single-pass overwrite. Sufficient for non-sensitive consumer use. - Purge: cryptographic erase via Secure Erase or encryption key destruction. Sufficient for most regulated use. - Destroy: physical destruction (shredding, disintegration, incineration). Required for top-secret material.
ISO/IEC 27040:2024
International standard for storage security including data sanitisation. Used in EU compliance frameworks.
NSA/CSS Storage Device Sanitization Manual
US National Security Agency standard for classified data. More stringent than NIST 800-88; effectively requires destruction for any media that held classified data.
CESG Information Assurance Standard No. 5 (UK)
UK government standard, similar to NIST 800-88 in approach.
HIPAA (US healthcare)
Requires "appropriate" data destruction. NIST 800-88 R1 is the de facto standard. Documented certificate of destruction expected.
GDPR (EU/EEA)
Requires "appropriate technical and organisational measures" - includes documented secure data destruction. Notarised certificate is the practical bar.
PCI DSS (payment card industry)
Requirement 9.8: render media unreadable. NIST 800-88 R1 Purge level is the standard interpretation.
GLBA (US financial)
Similar to HIPAA - requires documented secure destruction; ITAD certificate is the practical compliance evidence.
SOX (US public companies)
Records retention rules apply pre-destruction; once retention period elapses, data must be securely destroyed with documentation.
What an ITAD certificate of destruction looks like
A compliant certificate of destruction includes:
- Asset list: serial numbers of every device destroyed
- Destruction method: NIST 800-88 R1 level (Clear / Purge / Destroy)
- Destruction date and location
- Operator name and certifying technician signature
- Witness signature (often required for high-security)
- Photographic evidence (sometimes - particularly for physical destruction)
- Chain of custody documentation from pickup through destruction
- R2 / e-Stewards certification / NAID AAA certification reference of the destroying facility
If your ITAD provider can't produce all of these, find a different one.
Common mistakes to avoid
Mistake 1: Trusting "delete" or "format" alone
A standard delete just removes the file index; the data remains on disk until overwritten. A "quick format" only rewrites the partition table. Both are recoverable with off-the-shelf forensic tools.
Mistake 2: Forgetting the SD card / SIM card
Removable storage retains data after the host device is wiped. Always remove and separately wipe or destroy.
Mistake 3: Selling devices without unlinking accounts
For Apple devices: Find My / Activation Lock prevents new owner from setting up the device unless you sign out first. For Samsung: same with Samsung Account / Reactivation Lock. Forgetting this means the device becomes a paperweight to the recipient.
Mistake 4: Trusting factory reset on pre-2017 Android budget phones
Many sub-$200 Android phones from 2014-2017 had encryption either disabled by default or implemented poorly. Factory reset on these devices is NOT secure. For these phones: physical destruction or extended overwriting only.
Mistake 5: Not removing or wiping printers/copiers
Multifunction office printers retain hundreds to thousands of documents in internal flash memory. Standard factory reset often doesn't clear it. Manufacturer-specific procedures required.
Mistake 6: Ignoring smart home devices
Amazon Echo, Google Home, Ring doorbells, Nest thermostats - all retain account credentials and may retain logs/recordings. Factory reset + account removal both required.
Mistake 7: Disposing of unencrypted backup drives
That external HDD with 10 years of family photos and tax returns? It's an even bigger leak than the laptop, and most people forget it exists.
Frequently asked questions
Is a factory reset really enough for my iPhone? Yes - for iPhone 5s and later (every iPhone made since 2013), the Secure Enclave hardware destroys the encryption key on factory reset, making data mathematically unrecoverable.
What about my old iPhone 4 / 3GS? These pre-Secure Enclave devices have weaker protection. Factory reset + manual deletion + filling storage with junk content is the best non-destructive approach. For sensitive data, physical destruction is the only certain method.
My Android phone is from 2016 - is factory reset secure? Probably not. Most pre-2017 Android phones either had encryption disabled by default or implemented in software (slower, weaker). Recommendation: factory reset, then fill storage with random video recordings until full, then factory reset again.
Can I just throw the laptop in a swimming pool? Water immersion does not destroy data on hard drives - once dried out, the drive often still works. Don't rely on water as a destruction method.
Will a strong magnet wipe my SSD? No. SSDs don't use magnetic storage. Magnets work on HDDs (degaussing) but not SSDs.
Does drilling holes in a hard drive destroy it? Drilling holes through the platters disrupts most of the data, but determined forensic recovery can sometimes still extract residual content from the un-drilled portions. For maximum security, shredding or full disintegration.
My laptop has been stolen - am I safe if I had encryption enabled? If FileVault (Mac), BitLocker (Windows), or LUKS (Linux) was enabled with a strong passphrase, the data is unrecoverable to the thief without the passphrase. This is a strong argument for always enabling full-disk encryption from day 1.
Should I trust a recycler's claim that they wipe drives? Trust but verify. For non-sensitive consumer use, retailer drop-off (Best Buy, Currys) is fine. For sensitive data, demand a certificate of destruction from a R2/e-Stewards/NAID AAA certified ITAD provider - not "we'll handle it" handwaving.
How do I prove to my company that I securely destroyed the data? Get an ITAD provider's certificate of destruction. Even better: physical destruction with photographic and video evidence, chain-of-custody documentation, and notarised certifying signature.
What if I'm donating, not recycling? Same wiping standards apply. Often higher - donations may end up in unpredictable hands. Wipe to the highest standard your data classification requires.
Is it possible to recover deleted files from a properly wiped drive? For modern devices with hardware-encryption-key-destruction or NIST 800-88 Purge-level wiping: no, not even with state-of-the-art forensic tools. For HDDs wiped with single-pass overwriting: theoretically possible with electron microscope analysis, but the cost ($100,000+ per drive) and time exceeds the value of the data for any consumer scenario.
What about cloud backups? Wiping the device doesn't wipe the cloud. Sign out of iCloud, Google, Dropbox, OneDrive, etc. to prevent the new owner of the device accessing your cloud data via cached credentials.
Sources - NIST SP 800-88 Rev. 1: Guidelines for Media Sanitization - ISO/IEC 27040:2024: Storage security - NSA/CSS Storage Device Sanitization Manual - DoD 5220.22-M: National Industrial Security Program Operating Manual - Apple Platform Security Guide (annual update) - Microsoft BitLocker documentation - Samsung Knox security whitepapers - Blancco Annual State of Drive Erasure 2024 - Ponemon Institute / IBM Cost of a Data Breach Report 2024
Disclaimer
Information in this guide reflects 2026 standards and tooling. Cryptographic standards and recovery techniques continue to evolve. For binding compliance advice in regulated industries (HIPAA, GDPR, PCI DSS, SOX), consult a qualified information security professional or attorney. eCycling Central is an independent information directory operated by Defining Style Limited (UK Companies House 10572391).
